NCF Research Officer Felix Mohaupt explores the human rights landscape of the Middle East, ranking each nation on a number of categories: LGBTQ Rights, Women’s Rights, Minority Rights and the right to Freedom of Expression. His initial report has been augmented by the work of NCF Research Officer Thomas Rands, further edited by NCF UK head Jaafar el Ahmar and NCF Secretary General William Morris LL.D.. With great regret, William has taken the decision to place the State of Israel at the lowest possible ranking, largely in view of events in regard to Gaza.
First: Lebanon
Our ranking 26 points out of a possible 40
LGBTQ Rights – Mixed
Lebanon has laws against gay and lesbian relationships as well as transgender expression. Fortunately those laws are rarely enforced and furthermore Beirut has always had a strong Pride scene. Unfortunately outside of Beirut, conservative societal attitudes and the strength of Islamist political groups such as Hezbollah in the south, continue to hold back the state of LGBTQ rights in the country.
Rank 7/10
Women’s Rights – Good
Women legally are equal before the law in most aspects. Lebanon is famous for its relaxed attitudes towards issues such as the wearing of veils and the rights of women to work and to live independently of familial men. Unfortunately in some cases, especially in divorce and child custody situations, women are disadvantaged in Lebanese courts and outcomes disproportionately favour men.
Beyond that domestic violence and femicide continue to be issues in Lebanon that are underreported, under-investigated and conviction rates continue to be low.
Rank 8/10
Minority Rights – Mixed
Lebanon has made strides compared to its civil war days. The sectarian political system guarantees political representation for Christians and Muslims within Lebanon but has exacerbated existing religious and racial divides. The system of government has entrenched religiously affiliated political parties and has limited the potential for cross-communal and intersectional political movements.
Furthermore, those rights only really extend to Lebanese Muslims; Syrian and Palestinian refugees have been discriminated against heavily. Notoriously enough, Palestinians in Lebanon who have been there since the Nakba have still been refused naturalisation by Lebanese authorities, keeping them as a stateless people. Syrian refugees in Lebanon have been denied their own naturalisation process and there have been reports of assaults against them by Lebanese people.
Rank 4/10
Freedom of Expression – Mixed
Lebanese people have their rights to freedom of express themselves both religiously and politically. In most cases this is true but the state of Lebanese politics means that in some cases these rights exist on paper only.
Politically people are expected to vote along with their religious or ethnic groups. In the south of Lebanon, the arms and money wielded by the Shia militant group Hezbollah are used to cajole Lebanese voters and policymakers to go with their political arm.
In terms of personal beliefs, people may be expected to align themselves with one of Lebanon’s recognised religious communities. Furthermore, the government has been known to survey internet usage and the media which has led to a culture of limited political personal expression. The authorities often are unable to protect people from the militias, foreign armies and other groups that may punish people who express critical opinions.
Rank 7/10
Second: Kuwait
Our ranking 25 points out of a possible 40
LGBTQ Rights – mixed
Homosexuality is criminalized with prison sentences, and transgender individuals face persecution under laws banning “imitating the opposite sex.” There are no legal protections against discrimination, leaving LGBTQ individuals vulnerable.
Rank 5/10
Women’s Rights – Mixed
While women can vote and run for office, they still face significant legal and cultural barriers. Male guardianship laws impact various aspects of their lives. Domestic violence remains an issue, and legal protections for women are often weak.
Rank 7/10
Minority Rights – Mixed
Bidoon (stateless people) face significant discrimination and lack basic rights, including access to healthcare and education (many Kuwaitis regard many of them as historic migrants from Iraq). Migrant workers, particularly domestic workers, are sometimes subjected to abuse and similarly to the rest of the Gulf States may be forced to work in dangerous conditions with their documentation confiscated. Shia Muslims may also experience very slight political and social discrimination.
Rank 7/10
Freedom of Expression – Mixed
Criticism of the Emir or the government could end in imprisonment or threats. The press and social media are monitored, with reasonable freedom of expression. Protest rights are restricted. Freedom of expression however is enshrined in the constitution in article 36, the only major restrictions are around public criticism of the Emir or Government institutions. The press in Kuwait has been described as vibrant but self-censoring due to these laws.
Rank 6/10
Third: Oman
Our ranking 23 points out of a possible 40
LGBTQ Rights – Mixed
Same sex relationships are illegal in Oman. Expressions of gender identity also come under scrutiny, with laws against ‘cross-dressing’. Thankfully there hasn’t been a reported prosecution for same-sex relations since 2009. There has also been a decline in hate crimes and assaults against LGBTQ people in recent years. The lack of prosecution and consequently de facto criminalisation is why the rank is so high.
Rank 6/10
Women’s Rights – Mixed
Similar to the other Gulf States, women do have the right to work and to live their lives. Unfortunately, limited guardianship laws do still put barriers in the way of women towards gender equality and independence, domestic violence and abuse are still issues that are underreported and the prosecution of perpetrators continues to be hard to achieve.
Rank 5/10
Minority Rights – Mixed
Shia Muslims face discrimination within Oman and migrant workers face the same conditions they face in Kuwait or Bahrain: sometimes forced into long, underpaid contracts in dangerous or menial work with no way out as their travel and identification documents are often confiscated upon arrival in the country.
Rank 7/10
Freedom of Expression – Mixed
There does seem to be genuine support for the Monarchy and Omani government. Unfortunately dissent and criticism is still forbidden. The internet and social media are monitored closely, the media is kept under the thumb of the state and is often censored, and political protests are monitored, but thankfully violent reactions by security forces seem to be rare and a method of communication does exist between protesters and the government when they do break out.
Rank 5/10
Fourth: Qatar
Our ranking 21 points out of 40
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
Same sex relations between men and women are illegal in Qatar. There have been reports, though sparse, of active enforcement of those laws. Unfortunately, the social stigma surrounding being a part of the LGBTQ community and the threats of violence and exclusion mean that there isn’t a culture of openness about those experiences. The 2022 World cup also caused controversy because of this, however, did allow for homosexual individuals to attend without incident, with the warning that displays of affection should be “conservative”.
Rank 6/10
Women’s Rights – Mixed
Similar laws to Bahrain, with attempts made to push for gender equality but issues such as guardianship laws prevent women from achieving independence. Over the last 30 years progress has been made, including Women having the ability to vote since 1999 and holding positions in government. Additionally, women are strongly represented in educated fields including medicine, banking and government.
Rank 7/10
Minority Rights – Poor
Similar to the rest of the Gulf but Qatar received increased scrutiny over reports that migrant labour was used in the construction of the facilities in preparation for the 2022 FIFA World Cup and that hundreds of migrant workers died in dangerous conditions with no ability to complain or lobby or even to leave as their documentation had been taken from them. The Kafala system ties migrant workers to their employers who are their ‘sponsors’, restricting their ability to leave the country or change jobs without consent. This leaves them vulnerable to exploitation, abuse, and sudden deportation, with little protection. There is also some slight inter-tribal discrimination.
Rank 5/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
Criticizing the Emir or government in Qatar can lead to imprisonment. The government wields controls over the press and social media. Freedom of expression is restricted, protests are rarely tolerated, and political opposition faces heavy suppression. Furthermore, there are fines for harmful online content, with some offenders receiving prison sentences. The famous Al Jazeera TV is unrestricted in its coverage internationally but restricted in regard to internal issues within Qatar.
Rank 4/10
Fifth: Tunisia
Our ranking 20 points out of a possible 40
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
Gay relationships are illegal in Tunisia. Furthermore, the punishment for being caught in a homosexual relationship or taking part in sexual relations does include the death sentence. This environment has been recently exacerbated by recent crackdowns on the LGBTQ community, with a wave of arrests as recently as February taking place.
Rank 4/10
Women’s rights – Good
Tunisia boasts a comprehensive level of equality for women. Gender equality has been enshrined in the law since 2008. Women however do face increased levels of violence, with 25 femicides in 2024, additionally women are more likely to be unemployed by a rate of 8%.
Unfortunately since the 2021 coup d’état, the Tunisian government has been accused of going after feminist groups via government-sanctioned social media harassment. There are fears that the Tunisian government will roll-back those relatively recent gains for women but nothing yet has occurred.
Rank 7/10
Minority Rights – Good
Tunisia has been proactive in passing anti-discriminatory law. There are laws that protect people from being discriminated against based on their gender, race or national/ethnic origin.
Unfortunately in practice. Some minorities live in much worse conditions than average. Black Tunisians on average are poorer, less educated and are underrepresented in the media and politics. In some towns of southern Tunisia, de-facto segregation occurs, supported by a societal disapproval of Arab/Black relationships.
Rank 5/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
The 2021 coup has led to a decline and crackdown on the rights that had been gained in the Arab Spring in 2011. Journalists have been arrested by the government and the 2024 elections were boycotted by most opposition parties and saw extremely low voter turnout and an unrealistic 90% victory for ruling President Kais Saied. The government has also cracked down on online media under the guise of dealing with ‘cybercrime’, these come under the decree No 2022-54 on Cybercrime, which prohibits the sharing of “false news” online. This has resulted on the country declining in the press freedom index.
Rank 4/10
Sixth: Jordan
Our ranking 17 points out of a possible 40
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
Gay and lesbian relationships are not criminalised in Jordan. Unfortunately, LGBTQ people face serious social stigma and often face legal discrimination nonetheless. There is no legal recognition for gay or lesbian relations, transgender individuals aren’t able to easily change their identified gender on government documentation and the authorities are unlikely to help people discriminate against in housing and employment because of their LGBTQ status.
Furthermore the social stigma within Jordan has come with serious risks of violence. The government, even though homosexual relations are decriminalised, uses laws aimed to ‘promote morality’ and to ‘prevent debauchery’ to go after LGBTQ people anyway. The police and other law enforcement agencies have also been reported to undertake unlawful raids against suspected LGBTQ individuals who often have their possessions, such as phones, computers and other devices taken to find evidence to accuse individuals of being part of the LGBTQ community.
Rank 4/10
Women’s Rights – Mixed
In Jordan, women have legal rights, but systemic discrimination continues to limit their full participation in society. Progress has been made, with more women entering work and higher education and a set number of seats within Parliament reserved for women. Legal barriers still exist, such as the requirement for a male guardian’s approval in issues like marriage.
Honour killings still occur, and perpetrators sometimes receive reduced sentences. Despite these obstacles, there is growing advocacy for women’s rights, pushing for reforms to ensure greater equality and protection under the law.
Rank 4/10
Minority Rights – Poor
Minority groups continue to face systemic discrimination and political marginalization. Palestinian-Jordanians, despite making up a large portion of the population, and being one of the few groups of Palestinians to be naturalised en-masse in their country of residence, encounter barriers in government and military positions. Bedouin tribes continue to often receive preferential treatment. While Christian and Circassian minorities have reserved seats in parliament, they remain sidelined from broader political influence.
Refugee communities, particularly Syrians, struggle with legal work opportunities and social integration, similarly to Syrians in Lebanon.
Rank 6/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
Strict censorship laws limit media coverage, and criticism of the king or government can result in arrest. Jordan’s government has a hand in picking the editors and founds multiple news outlets. Instructions to editors are common, as are gag orders, arrests of journalists and shutdowns of websites and papers. Online speech and activity is under surveillance, with users facing imprisonment for expressing political dissent. Protests are technically allowed but the authorities frequently suppress demonstrations that challenge the monarchy or security forces.
Religious expression is also tightly controlled: Muslims must adhere to state-approved teachings, with sermons monitored for anti-government sentiment. Blasphemy is illegal but apostasy is not, although serious social stigma is attached to leaving Islam. Other religious communities are allowed to practice freely but proselytization is forbidden.
Rank 3/10
Seventh: Algeria
Our ranking 17 points out of a possible 40
LGBTQ Rights – Mixed
Gay and lesbian relationships are criminalised but thankfully those laws are not commonly enforced. Additionally, homosexuality is highly stigmatised within the country, with individuals subject to discrimination and harassment.
Rank 4/10
Women’s Rights – Good
Gender equality is recognised in Algeria, but women do continue to be underrepresented in the workforce and in political life. Algeria has made strides in supporting women, with sexual harassment and domestic violence being specific crimes under Algerian law. Algerian society still is quite conservative, with gender violence still quite common in comparison to western countries, with a move toward gender equality requiring this to end.
Rank 4/10
Minority Rights – Mixed
Algeria recognises Tamazight as an official language, the Amazigh (Berbers) having gained greater recognition. However, minorities are often discriminated against, with restrictions on Christian conversion through article 2. Considerable numbers of individuals have been either incarcerated or fined through this framework and others, the case of church leaders from Tizi Ouzou Province being an example of this.
Rank 4/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
Freedom of expression in the media is curtailed, with journalists and media organizations frequently facing arrests and shutdowns under the pretext of ‘national security.’ Ihsan El Kadi was sentenced to seven years in prison and the closure of Interface Media due to his alleged ties with French news outlets. Boualem Sansal was arrested in 2024 after commenting that, during the colonial period, France gave Moroccan land to Algeria. In March 2025, he was sentenced to five years in prison for ‘undermining national unity.’
The Algerian government has dissolved political parties, banned human rights organisations, and prohibited protests, particularly those critical of the government or security forces. Elections continue to be a sham, as President Tebboune secured re-election with 84% of the vote in an election where turnout was low, other candidates were investigated on corruption charges and where the opposition called for a boycott of the election.
Rank 3/10
Eighth: Bahrain
Our ranking 14 points out of a possible 40
LGBTQ Rights – Mixed
Same-sex relations are decriminalised but LGBTQ individuals still face significant legal and social challenges. Authorities often use public indecency laws to target LGBTQ couples with fines or imprisonment. There are also no legal forms of gender recognition, with trans individuals facing discrimination under public decency laws.
Rank 5/10
Women’s Rights – Mixed
The 2002 constitution granted women legal equality with men, but certain discriminatory laws remain. Bahrain’s economic vision 2030 has specifically emphasised gender equality as part of national development, with the last 20 years having seen considerable progress made including increased participation in the workforce, high representation in higher education and increased political participation.
Rank 7/10
Minority Rights – Poor
The Sunni royal family rules over a Shia-majority population that has faced serious repression, especially after the Arab Spring. Protests have been cracked down upon and Shia religious institutions and individuals are closely monitored.
A large number of Indian migrant workers endure harsh conditions, with many having their passports confiscated and being subjected to long, underpaid contracts in dangerous work.
Rank -1/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
Critics of the authorities face the constant threat of imprisonment, with dissent heavily suppressed. Protests are often broken up by force, and the government’s brutal crackdown on the 2011 Arab Spring uprising remains a chilling example of how far the government is willing to go to hold onto power.
Rank 3/10
Ninth: Egypt
Our ranking 13 points out of 40
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
Whilst Egypt does not have specific laws that prohibit homosexuality, it is de Facto illegal. This is due to the public morality and public order laws that have been used to crack down on the LGBTQ community since 2001, this includes the police using online dating apps to flush out any potential LGBTQ persons for prosecution.
Rank 2/10
Women’s Rights – Mixed
Women have legal rights, but male guardianship policies still exist, stifling women. Women are often disadvantaged in divorce proceedings, and in some cases, especially in rural areas of Egypt they are required to obtain their husband’s permission to work or even leave the house. Women are sometimes intimidated in the street if they do not cover their heads. Islamic feminism movements emerged in the 1990’s, being successful in carving out more space for women’s participation in religious cultures. Additionally, areas of politics have been opened up to women, with a quarter of seats in the house of representative reserved for them since 2019. Also in 2019, social security was expanded to cover irregular jobs, consequently bringing more women out of poverty.
Rank 5/10
Minority Rights – Poor
Religious and ethnic minorities face significant persecution and discrimination. While Islam is the official religion, the constitution guarantees freedom of belief, unfortunately that isn’t always upheld. Coptic Christians, who are the largest religious minority, endure violence such as forced displacement, bombings, and restrictions on church construction. In April 2024, violence broke out in Al-Fawakhir after a house was rumoured to have been turned into a church, with attacks on Christian homes.
Ethnic minorities also face discrimination. Bedouins in the Sinai face suspicion due to alleged connections to ISIS according to the security forces, with curfews, ruthless checkpoints, and travel limitations imposed on them through the justification of “counterterrorism” operations. Furthermore, migrants and refugees from sub-Saharan Africa suffer under serious racism. And in the South the Nubians are severely discriminated against and their land taken. The government also does not recognise minorities other than those who were not born within the Egyptian state, consequently not providing protections to minorities languages and culture.
Rank 4/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
Freedom of expression is severely restricted under President el-Sisi’s authoritarian regime. Protesters are often prosecuted, and demonstrations are violently broken up by security forces. Activists and social media figures who criticize government policies, such as those related to the war in Gaza or the IMF, often face arbitrary detention, with many held without trial for extended periods.
Activist Alaa Abd El-Fattah, who has been imprisoned regularly since 2006 for his opposition to the government, has become a symbol of the country’s crackdown on dissent. Abd El-Fattah has been tortured and recently has his sentence extended to 2027. (increase this)
Rank 2/10
Tenth: Iraq
Our ranking 12 points out of a possible 40
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
LGBTQ rights have worsened considerably in Iraq. In April 2024, the government criminalized same-sex relationships, imposing prison sentences of up to 15 years. Transgender individuals, doctors performing gender reassignment surgery, and men who “act like women” also face penalties under these new laws.
Rank 1/10
Women’s Rights – Poor
Women’s rights also are poor in Iraq. Child marriage is legal from age 15 and nearly a third of girls are married before 18, according to UNICEF. The Iraq civil code also grants impunity for domestic violence, leaving women with little legal protection against abuse and discrimination. However there are reserved seats for women in parliament.
Rank 3/10
While the Kurdish minority has gained autonomy through the Kurdistan Regional Government, other groups face severe discrimination. Turkmen and Sunni Arabs, especially in the north, are often arbitrarily detained by security forces under suspicion of ISIS ties, with many denied fair trials and legal representation.
Rank 4/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
Freedom of expression is enshrined in the constitution, unfortunately in practice, it is heavily restricted. Authorities use vague anti-terror and public decency laws to shut down websites and arrest journalists, while anti-defamation laws are frequently employed to punish critics and to foster a culture of self-censorship online and in the media. This is showcased quite clearly using the press freedom index, which ranks Iraq as 169th.
Rank 4/10
Eleventh: Türkiye (Turkey)
Our ranking 12 points out of a possible 40
LGBTQ Rights – Mixed
Same-sex relations are not prohibited but LGBTQ rights and societal acceptance of them is declining. Pride parades that used to be held in Turkey’s major cities such as Istanbul have recently been the target of violent police action. Arrests have been made for simply attending a pride event.
Legally LGBTQ people continue to face discrimination. There are no laws to protect people from discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. LGBTQ people continue to be barred from serving in the military.
Turkish society is still conservative, and the ruling AKP government has doubled down on its conservative stance on LGBTQ issues. LGBTQ content online and in the media is censored, the AKP has campaigned with homophobic political parties, its leaders have used hate speech and the AKP now rules in tandem with a hard-right party (MHP) that objects to any advancement in LGBTQ rights.
Rank 5/10
Women’s Rights – Worsening
Turkey’s stance on Women’s Rights has worsened. Turkey now has one of the highest rates of femicide and gender-based violence in the world. Domestic violence victims have little recourse or power, the police are reluctant to investigate and resources such as shelters are limited.
The AKP has suggested that women focus on bearing children instead of working and have attempted to dissuade women from seeking divorce.
Politically and economically women continue to be underrepresented. Women earn less in nearly all fields compared to male colleagues and women only make up 20% of the national legislature.
Rank 4/10
Minority Rights – Poor
The PKK announced they would lay down arms in February. A peace plan between Turkish authorities and the PKK still hasn’t been agreed upon. Turkish security forces have often been accused of failing to differentiate between civilians and ‘PKK’ in the Kurdish majority regions of Turkey.
Otherwise Kurds are discriminated against both legally and politically. Thousands of Kurds are held in prison based on anti-terrorism legislation and multiple Kurdish organisations have been shut down. Politically the HDP, the largest Kurdish political party, ran within an alliance of anti-AKP parties. They are stuck in opposition. The 2023 election saw major arrests of Kurdish journalists and shutdowns of smaller Kurdish political parties. Kurds are still not allowed to learn Kurdish in school and efforts have been made by the authorities to block NGOs and Kurdish aid organisations from operating.
Rank 1/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
Press freedom and freedom of the media are heavily restricted, most media networks are controlled by pro-government businesses and independent outlets face censorship, fines, and their journalists face prosecution. Those critical of the government are frequently arrested, with Turkey ranking among the world’s top jailers of journalists.
Social media is under surveillance for critical posts of the government. Religious minorities, including Alevis and non-Muslims, face societal discrimination, and their institutions lack state funding.
Academic freedom is severely undermined, with universities pressured to avoid sensitive topics, and scholars dismissed or prosecuted for dissent, notoriously after the coup attempt in 2016, over 10,000 teachers were fired. The government heavily censors the internet, blocking platforms like X during crises. This has culminated in recent detentions following student protests, with examples such as 97 individuals being detained at Istanbul’s Boğaziçi University
Rank 2/10
Twelfth: Morocco
Our ranking 11 points out of a possible 40
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
LGBTQ people face harsh discrimination from both the government and society at large. Same sex relationships are criminalised and come with a maximum sentence of three years in prison. This is due to article 489 of the Penal Code of Morocco that criminalises “lewd or unnatural acts with an individual of the same sex”.
Rank 1/10
Women’s Rights – Mixed
Morocco has improved women’s political representation through a system of reserved seats, with electoral reforms increasing female representation in local elections, at the national level, 60 out of 395 seats in the legislature are allocated to women, along with half of the 30 seats reserved for youth. Furthermore the October 2021 cabinet included a record seven women.
Despite those advancements and the 2011 constitution which recognised gender equality, women continue to face barriers, such as in land and inheritance rights. Over a third of the country’s land is collectively owned by tribes. Tribal inheritance laws prevent women from holding land rights, non-tribal inheritance laws also disadvantage women, granting them half the property of a male child/heir.
Domestic violence is underreported, Moroccan law has attempted to expand its definition of rape and its procedure to deliver justice in those cases, but spousal rape is still not outlawed.
Rank 5/10
Minority rights – Mixed
Amazighs (also known as Berbers) make up 40% of Morocco’s population. Unfortunately, Amazighs have been marginalised politically and economically. Some progress has been made with the Tamazight language becoming recognised as official and a concerted effort has been made to teach about Amazigh culture more in schools.
Sub-Saharan migrants and Black Moroccans continue to face endemic and systemic racism.
Rank 2/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
The media is tightly controlled in Morocco. Broadcasting media is dominated by the state. Independent outlets are closely and their abilities to comment on sensitive topics such as the monarchy, government and the Western Sahara are restricted heavily. Multiple journalists face prison sentences while the internet and social media are under surveillance for discussions or criticisms about the government or its policies. A culture of self-censorship exists to prevent arrest or suspicion by the security services.
The King holds final say over religious affairs. Similarly to Jordan, Mosques and Imams are monitored and have to be registered with the government.
Mass protests, while legally allowed, are cracked down on harshly through police action. On the internet, activists and others are targeted by government run smear campaigns.
Rank 2/10
Thirteenth: Palestine (West Bank & Gaza)
Our ranking 10 points out of 40
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
(Gaza) Before October 2023, LGBTQ individuals faced widespread discrimination, violence, and had no protection under the law. The legal system offered minimal protections for LGBTQ people, who were often subjected to harassment and abuse. Hamas upheld the criminalisation of sexual acts between men, with penalties of up to 10 years in prison or even execution.
(West Bank) Same sex relations are not prohibited. Unfortunately LGBTQ people do face abuse and harassment by Palestinian Authorities and members of society and furthermore there are no laws that ban discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity.
Rank 1/10
Women’s Rights – Mixed
(Gaza) Hamas has largely excluded women from political roles and leadership in Gaza. Furthermore, women were often largely absent from the political rallies and events that Hamas used to hold before the October 2023 attacks and start of the war. Universities were expected to uphold the moral standards Hamas expected which meant that classes were separated on gender and women were expected to wear a veil while at the universities.
(West Bank) Palestinian Authority law aims to support gender equality but in practice it often falls short. Societal norms mean that women are underrepresented in government, they earn less than their male counterparts in work even though there is universal access to higher-education. Women work less than men because of societal norms that disagree with it.
West Bank authorities have failed to reduce the level of abuse and violence that women face. Honour killings, though rare, continue to occur, domestic abuse and rape are underreported and when it is investigated, the legal system is reluctant to punish perpetrators.
The score being so low reflects the situation in Gaza specifically, balancing out a relatively high score from the West Bank with the incredibly low score that would have been given to Gaza.
Rank 2/10
Minority Rights – Mixed
The principal Palestinian minority are the Christians, and these are, by and large, treated fairly by the Muslim majority, with the constitution guaranteeing that all individuals are equal under the law. This also extends to holy sites, which have been agreed by both Israel and the Palestinian Authority to be considered respected sites, with free access to all of these for these minorities. This has not always been upheld, with Christian leaders claiming there has been persecution in Palestinian Authority led areas.
Rank 6/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
(Gaza) Hamas had never run a politically pluralistic system before the war. Since the war there is effectively no way to freely express an opinion in Gaza. infrastructure has been destroyed by incessant Israeli bombing and fighting, leading to lacks in internet access along with access to the outside world.
Furthermore, Hamas hadn’t held an election since 2006 and the war has destroyed any political authority in Gaza. much of the north of the Strip is effectively under martial law.
Controversially, West Bank Israelis have the right to vote and participate within Israeli elections and the broader Israeli political sphere. West Bank Palestinians do not, they are only eligible to vote and participate in politics within territories controlled by the Palestinian Authority, although that governing body has not held an election since the 2006 election. The Palestinian Authority blames Israel for the failure to hold Presidential elections, though the reality is that these could have been held and the Palestinian President’s reluctance to lose his grip on power is the real issue.
The media wasn’t allowed editorial freedom under Hamas rule. Since the war over a hundred journalists have been killed in the fighting, and much of the infrastructure has been destroyed that would have allowed a media ecosystem to survive in Gaza but for this Israel, not Palestine, is culpable.
(West Bank) There is no freedom for the media in the West Bank. West Bank journalistic and media outlets must contend with both Palestinian Authority and Israeli censorship demands. The Palestinian Authority allows fines, imprisonment and business closure for those outlets deemed to have harmed ‘national unity’. Beyond that, Israeli forces have been known to assault journalists and to even to kill journalists sometimes (though of course for this Israel, not Palestine) is culpable.
Islam is the official religion of the West Bank and blasphemy is on the books as a criminal offence.
Personal expression is also limited. Social media is monitored by Palestinian Authority and Israeli forces. Palestinians have been arrested for expressing both anti-Palestinian Authority and anti-Israeli opinions. Some people have even died in custody for expressing criticism of the Palestinian Authority.
Rank 1/10
Fourteenth: United Arab Emirates
Our ranking 9 out of 40.
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
In the UAE, homosexuality is criminalized, with punishments ranging from imprisonment to fines and deportation for foreigners. Public displays of affection between people of the same sex are illegal. Social stigma, combined with the legal risks, makes it difficult for LGBTQ individuals to live openly or safely. Transgender people also face discrimination, with laws against gender expression that deviate from the traditional male-female binary.
Rank 2/10
Women’s Rights – Mixed
The UAE has made some strides in improving women’s rights. Women have the right to work and they are allowed to drive, though the male guardianship system remains an obstacle. Women still require permission of a male guardian for marriage, travel, or medical treatment. Though there have been improvements in terms of women in leadership positions, such as female ministers, the legal framework still limits women’s autonomy. Discrimination in family law, limited access to child custody, and restrictions on personal freedoms persist, showing that more improvement is needed.
Rank 4/10
Minority Rights – Poor
Similar to the other Gulf States, the UAE’s treatment of migrant workers is concerning. These workers are sometimes subjected to exploitation under the kafala system. Some migrant workers deal with low wages, poor living conditions, and a lack of legal protection, with a few apparently subjected to physical abuse or forced labour.
Rank 2/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
Criticism of the Emir or the government is illegal and can end in imprisonment. Any content deemed as a threat to the state or the reputation of the Royal Family can result in severe consequences. Protest rights are restricted, and political opposition is suppressed heavily.
Rank 1/10
Fifteenth: Saudi Arabia
Our ranking 6 points out of a possible 40
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
Same sex relations are forbidden under Sharia Law. The maximum penalty is the death sentence and both men and women are criminalised under the law. We know that the laws have been enforced stringently and that in some cases the death penalty has been handed down.
Societally there is serious discrimination and abuse towards LGBTQ individuals with reports of murder, harassment and a denial of services or rights based on sexual orientation or gender identity.
Rank 1/10
Women’s Rights – Improving
Saudi Arabia was the benchmark for a patriarchal society and state. Recently that has changed with the loosening of laws under the rule of Crown Prince Mohammed Bin Salman.
Women do continue to face legal and social discrimination in issues of marriage, child custody and inheritance.
Furthermore women can and have been arrested for criticising government policy regarding women’s rights. Saudi Arabia has still not criminalised marital rape and has even offered immunity to perpetrators of honour killings.
Rank 3/10
Minority Rights – Poor
Saudi Arabia is intolerant toward groups that deviate from the state-sanctioned interpretation of Sunni Islam. While Shiites hold some seats in the legislature and municipal councils in Shiite-majority areas, their influence is minimal. Tribes with close ties to the Royal Family, particularly from the Najd region, have historically held privileged positions in government, although their political power has diminished as the monarchy seeks to modernize and centralize authority.
Non-citizens, mainly migrant workers, who make up a third of the population, have no political rights, and citizenship is only passed through a Saudi father.
Rank 2/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
Tight control is held over the media, with journalists facing imprisonment for vaguely defined crimes. A 2011 royal decree criminalised criticism of government officials, religious leaders, and the press, leading to fines and media closures.
Notoriously, in 2018, journalist Jamal Khashoggi was murdered by Saudi agents, but no senior officials were held accountable despite clear evidence linking Saudi officials to the murder. The government also maintains extensive social media surveillance, uses bots to influence online discourse, and enforces a broad cybercrime law to suppress critical content.
In private, a culture of surveillance and self censorship keeps people from commenting on the state of Saudi politics. Criticism of the Royals or government policy is forbidden and can be charged with execution. Loujain al-Hathloul was arrested for a tweet against male guardianship laws in 2018 and imprisoned in 2020. She was only released in February this year.
Rank 0/10
Sixteenth: Iran
Our ranking 5 points out of 40
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
All homosexual relations are criminalized under the 2013 Penal Code, with the maximum penalty being death. Reports have surfaced of executions taking place as recently as 2022. The legal environment in Iran is harsh for LGBTQ individuals, and the threat of severe punishment, has led to widespread fear and repression within the community. Public attitudes towards homosexuality are deeply conservative, contributing to the marginalisation of LGBTQ people in the country.
Rank 1/10
Women’s Rights – Poor
Since the 2022 protests following the death of Jina Mahsa Amini at the hands of Iranian police, repression towards women in Iran has intensified.
Women seen in public without the hijab face harassment, assault, and violence from the morality police, who may slap them in the streets. The environment for women has become oppressive, with a “panopticon” effect taking hold across the country. Both men and women are encouraged to report women seen without the hijab on government apps, while facial recognition technology is used outside government and academic buildings to identify and apprehend women who defy the hijab ruling.
Rank 1/10
Minority Rights – Poor
Iran’s constitution officially recognizes only four religions: Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism, leaving other religious groups, like the Baha’is, heavily discriminated against. Baha’i followers face heavy persecution, including restrictions on education, employment, and religious practices.
Minority-dominated areas, such as Baluchistan, are neglected in terms of development and infrastructure. These regions are viewed with immense suspicion by the government, and the Baluch people face discrimination, human rights abuses, and marginalisation by the security forces.
Rank 2/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
Iran is a theocratic dictatorship, where only approved organizations are permitted to exist. All news media is heavily censored and monitored, often by hardliners with direct ties to the IRGC, ensuring that critical voices are suppressed.
Expressions of Sunni Islam are effectively banned in public, with Sunni mosques frequently denied permission to be built or operate.
Oddly however, the film-making industry seems to escape much of the repression, for reasons that are almost incomprehensible. Perhaps one of the most poignantly beautiful minority rights films ever made, “Half Moon”, was produced in Iran despite censorship.
Rank 2/10
Seventeenth: Libya
Our ranking 6 points out of 40
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
The civil war has prevented any advancement for the rights of women, LGBTQ people or even the average Libyan.
Homosexuality is illegal in Libya, with prison sentences. Beyond that LGBTQ people have been targeted for violence by the armed groups that operate in Libya and the society is deeply conservative, amplifying the marginalisation they face.
Rank 1/10
Women’ Rights – Poor
Since the 2011 revolution and ensuing civil war, women’s rights in Libya have significantly deteriorated. Widespread sexual violence, forced marriages, and a lack of any protection are prominent issues. In areas controlled by Islamist factions, women face severe restrictions in public life, with limitations on their mobility, dress, and freedom of expression.
Even when attempts are made to unite the countries and unify the legal systems, women are harmed. There were reports in November of the establishment of morality police by the Government of National Unity as well as a veil requirement as in Iran. The Minister who made the proposal, Emad Trabelsi, included in his speech the words: “there is no space for personal liberty in Libya.”
Rank 3/10
Minority Rights – Poor
Migrants and refugees, especially those from sub-Saharan Africa, are subjected to severe abuse, including exploitation, human trafficking, and slavery. These vulnerable groups often find themselves caught in conflict zones or in detention centres, where they endure physical and psychological violence with no relief.
The tribal communities of Libya have been caught up in the civil war, with fighting between Amazigh tribes and the competing government forces occurring at times.
Rank 2/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
Press freedom is non-existent, with journalists facing constant threats, including kidnappings and killings. The civil war further complicates the situation, making protests dangerous and subjecting them to violent crackdowns. Speaking out against militias or the authorities is risky, as it can lead to imprisonment or even death.
Rank 0/10
Eighteenth: Yemen
Our ranking 6 out of 40 points
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
Same sex relations are illegal in Yemen. The maximum penalty is death, with stoning, flogging and imprisonment common punishments for those being found in violation of these rules.
In more recent years, the Ansar Allah (Houthi) government has doubled down on the anti-LGBTQ laws and rhetoric. Ansar Allah (Houthi) government forces have executed LGBTQ people, furthermore there have been reports of torture, imprisonment without trial and sexual violence arrayed against the Yemeni LGBTQ community.
None the less, homosexuality is not uncommon.
1/10
Women’s Rights – Poor
The Ansar Allah (Houthi) government has severely restricted women’s freedom of movement, requiring them to travel with a male guardian or to have written approval to travel. Furthermore, women are being expected to wear a veil in public at all times. Ansar Allah authorities are detaining women in female-only prison facilities. The women detained in those prisons have reported that they have been tortured, starved, kept in isolation, beaten and sexually harassed.
None the less Yemen remains a traditional matriarchal society and women hold prominent roles. One of the main Ansar Allah spokespersons is female.
2/10
Minority Rights – Poor
The Ansar Allah (Houthis) have been accused of going after non-Muslims in Yemen, especially the Baha’i people. Arbitrary detentions, harassment and discrimination have all been practiced by the Ansar Allah government when they have interacted with the Baha’i community.
However it is not remotely likely that the rise of the Houthi movement drove the last remaining Yemeni Jews to flee as some suggest. Yemen has had a Jewish community for thousands of years, it would not be wrong to see how the Houthi movement, whose flag even spells out the words ‘death to Israel’, would have driven the remaining thousand or so Jews to flee for their lives before the Houthis could take Sanaa, the capital city. But the chant “Death to Israel” is grossly inflammatory. Additional minorities, such as Yemen’s Muhamasheen, suffer from caste based discrimination, characterised by deep seated poverty and exclusion.
2/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
The Houthis do not respect people’s rights to express themselves. The Houthis have detained hundreds of protesters marking the September 26 Revolution, preferring their own 21st September conquest of Sanaa as a public holiday. In 2023, around 1,000 people were arrested for celebrating the anniversary. Additionally, since mid-2024, Houthi authorities have arbitrarily detained dozens of UN and civil society staff, with the number of detentions continuing to rise.
1/10
Nineteenth: Afghanistan
Our ranking 5 points out of 40
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
In August 2024, the Taliban introduced the ‘Law on the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice,’ which further codified existing restrictions, particularly targeting LGBTQ individuals and women. The law, which was passed without widespread consultation, applies to all individuals in Afghanistan. This move solidifies the Taliban’s already stringent control over personal freedoms, particularly in areas related to gender and sexuality.
Same-sex relations are criminalised under the Taliban’s laws, with severe penalties that can include corporal punishment, such as flogging or stoning. This can however extend to the death penalty in some cases, with examples of individuals being stoned to death since the Taliban’s rise to power in 2021. Having said which, homosexuality is far from uncommon in Afghanistan and is tolerated if discreet.
Rank 1/10
Women’ Rights – Poor
Afghan women live under a form of gender segregation. When they leave their homes, they are required to wear the full-face ‘sharia hijab,’ covering their entire body in loose clothing. They are prohibited from interacting with non-familial men and must avoid making eye contact or speaking in public without male supervision. Women are not allowed to sign documents or to read aloud in public. This segregation is strictly enforced, with women needing a male guardian to accompany them outside, including on public transportation. At regional checkpoints, women face additional scrutiny and are often subjected to further restrictions on their movement.
Rank 1/10
Minority Rights – Poor
Religious segregation is strictly enforced, with Muslims banned from forming friendships or close associations with non-Muslims. The Taliban seeks to separate society along religious lines, with policies and social pressures aimed at isolating non-Muslims.
Rank 2/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
Freedom of expression effectively does not exist under the Taliban. Non-Islamic symbols, such as crucifixes, are banned from being worn openly. Fasting during Ramadan is mandatory for all, and mosque attendance is enforced as well. All published content, whether in print or online, must strictly adhere to Sharia law, limiting any form of dissent or diverse viewpoints. Furthermore the use of recording devices, such as phones or tape recorders, is heavily regulated, with vague definitions of “wrongful” use, leaving little room for any media ecosystem to form that isn’t Taliban controlled.
That said, foreign journalists are allowed comparatively unfettered access to Afghanistan, unlike for instance, in Israel controlled Gaza or in the coastal region of Latakia in Syria
Rank 1/10
Twentieth: Syria
Our ranking 4 points out of 40
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
With the collapse of the Assad regime, only one thing has stayed constant and that is the lack of rights LGBTQ people have in Syria, with article 520 outlawing homosexuality, with jail sentences of three years possible.
Immediately after the fall of Damascus, videos came out of HTS fighters harassing and assaulting LGBTQ individuals. There was little backlash from Syrian society and the Islamist roots of Al-Sharaa and his government do not bode well for any possibility at a progression of LGBTQ rights.
Rank 2/10
Women’s Rights – Mixed
No one knows yet what the policy of the Syrian transitional government towards women will be but it is likely to be concerning, however there has been no confirmed direction so optimism is possible in this situation.
The HTS are an Islamist group, already there has been some signs of what is to come. Idlib had male guardianship laws, a requirement to wear a veil and separated classrooms. It would not be out of the realm of possibility for the Transitional Government to implement those policies nationwide.
Meanwhile, kidnappings and disappearances continue, meaning that women are intimidated and reluctant to leave home without a male guardian.
Rank 2/10
Minority Rights – Poor
There have been major attacks on Alawite communities by HTS aligned forces since February. In March approximately a thousand people, mainly civilians, were killed in the fighting between Assad loyalists and the HTS militias. These killings may be reprisals for the crimes of the Assad government. These killings will only worsen the situation for minorities in Syria as they fear a Sunni-dominated national government.
Already the Druze in the south have come under what Israel regards as Israel´s protection as they occupy all of the Golan Heights.
Rank in this instance is a minus -2/10
Freedom of Expression – Mixed
Al-Sharaa has tried to claim to be moderate and his conference in February did include people from all sections of Syrian society (except the Kurds), including exiles from the time of Assad’s government.
The hope is that he will foster a more pluralistic society. Unfortunately the religious bent of his government will lead to fears of another Libya or Afghanistan where the new governing bodies embraced traditional values and used those to impose strict controls on the media and freedom of expression.
At the moment people do seem to have more freedom to say what they think. The hope is that that lasts and isn’t thrown to the wayside in favour of more state control, this is potentially possible, with the government not cracking down yet, however there are fears that this will be only temporary.
Rank 2/10
Twenty-first: Sudan
Our ranking 3 points out of 40
LGBTQ Rights – Poor
Same sex relationships are prohibited under Sudanese law, the penalties are imprisonment with life for the maximum sentence.
Because of the civil war since 2023, there have been no ways to confirm whether these laws are being enforced and whether anyone has been prosecuted for having a same-sex relationship.
What is known is that Sudanese society already did not approve of same-sex relations or bucking the traditional gender-binary and it is likely that the civil war has worsened the situation for the Sudanese LGBTQ community. The civil war has seen both the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) and Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) double down on their worst aspects and with reports of the SAF being linked with Islamist movements and whatever’s left of President al-Bashir’s supporters, it isn’t likely that the situation for LGBTQ Sudanese people will improve even if the civil war ends.
Rank 2/10
Women’s Rights – Poor
The civil war is awash with reports and testimonies of mass sexual assault and sexual slavery by both the RSF and SAF, with no recourse for the civilian population, especially women.
The RSF have been accused of using mass rape and sexual slavery to humiliate, assert dominance and to displace civilian populations wherever they operate. The SAF have also been accused of sexual assault and rape. In nearly all cases, Sudanese women have been unable to access care and aid after their ordeals.
Sudanese women are often raped at checkpoints by soldiers of both the RSF and SAF.
Rank 0/10
Minority Rights – Poor
Sudan has never had a good record when it comes to Minority Rights. South Sudan split away from the country following a long war with the Arab dominated government and armed forces of the nation. President al-Bashir’s government armed and funded the Janjaweed who committed a genocide in Darfur in 2003. Many former Janjaweed fighters later formed the RSF, which continues to operate with similar tactics, particularly in Darfur, where they have been accused of ethnic cleansing and genocide. The campaign against non-Arabs in Western Sudan will only escalate if the war doesn’t end soon.
Rank 0/10
Freedom of Expression – Poor
There is no freedom of the media in Sudan. Both the RSF and SAF have been reported to harass and even kill media workers and journalists. Media outlets are still unable to safely carry out their work and most Sudanese media outlets have been destroyed in the fighting or shut down by either of the rival governments.
There is little space to express opinions in Sudan. Political opinions that are critical of Al-Burhan’s government or the RSF are likely to bring down the ire of those groups. There is little recourse to prevent violence from either of these groups, or the many smaller militias that align with them. The constant threats of violence and state of the civil war and country mean that people have little expressive freedom or even the will to do so, as a culture of self-censorship and suppression exists throughout the country.
Rank 1/10
Twenty-second: Israel
Our ranking 2 points out of a possible 40
LGBTQ Rights – Good
Israel boasts the most comprehensive suite of protected rights for LGBTQ people in the Middle East. Gay or lesbian relationships are not subject to criminalisation and transgender people are able to change the gender and name on their ID and other official documentation at will. Gay marriage is still illegal to perform in Israel, but same-sex marriages performed outside of Israel are recognised.
Rank 8/10
Women’s rights – mostly mixed
Women’s rights in Israel are guaranteed both constitutionally and legally. There is increasing concern over the future of women in Israel with a number of issues driving it. Women’s rights may be mostly good for Israelis but less so for Palestinians under Israel’s hegemony. The IDF has been accused of committing sexual violence against Palestinian prisoners, concerningly, some Israeli groups have come out against prosecuting or investigating the allegations.
The continuing right-wing Netanyahu government has forged deeper ties with far-right and extremely religious political parties and groups in Israel, some women’s rights activists have shown concern at the increasing number of Orthodox Jews and Nationalist Israelis within the government in addition to the 2023 changes in the law that allowed for the use of Rabbinic courts for more than divorce cases.
Israeli forces in the West Bank have been accused of their own abuses against Palestinian women. Arrested women often face abuse, physical violence and even rape from IDF members and then are left without medical aid.
Rank 5/10
Minority Rights – Poor
Israel is currently a segregated society. Israel’s Arabs on average are poorer and less educated than Israel’s Jews. There is not a single Arab-friendly party represented within the government coalition. The Bedouin of the Negev have been systematically displaced by increasing numbers of settlers.
Politically, 2024 was an all-time low for Arab representation in the Knesset: out of 120 members, only 10 aren’t Jewish. Furthermore there is a clear disparity in voting rights within the occupied territories. West Bank settlers have been given voting rights for the Knesset and all Israel’s national elections; West Bank Palestinians do not have any of those rights.
Israel´s authorities have limited access to Jerusalem’s Holy Sites for Muslim practitioners, especially with regards to Al-Aqsa Mosque.
However, it must be noted that Israel´s current offensive action against the Gaza strip has contributed significantly to this exceptional negative score, with its conduct underscoring Israel´s treatment of its Palestinian Arab minority. The use of blockade tactics are unquestionably the gravest instance of collective punishment in the Middle East today.
Rank in this instance is a minus -10/10
Freedom of Expression – Worsening
Israel maintains strong legal protections for freedom of expression and media freedoms, with government attempts to boycott publications like Haaretz having failed. However, news coverage of the war in Gaza is subject to military censorship while the state of emergency continues. This censorship has been furthered during the war on Gaza to include not allowing journalists into Gaza, consequently censoring what the world sees, and why, exceptionally, this score has been reduced to a minus figure.
While freedom of expression persists, religious minorities, such as Muslims and Christians, are facing growing threats of assault and vandalism from right-wing Jewish groups. Additionally, restrictions on access to religious sites continue to affect Muslims, especially regarding the Temple Mount, where limitations on entry remain an issue.
In addition to journalists being denied access to war torn Gaza, press offices there have been bombed. The offices of Al Jazeera TV on the West Bank have been forcibly closed.
Rank in this instance is a minus -1/10
